A1 Gathering information and generating knowledge in order to design actions that will enhance the capacity of reforested pine woodland to adapt to climate change.
This preparatory action is designed to obtain and prepare the information that is needed to ensure the correct implementation of action C1 (adaptive management in reforested pine woodland). This action aims to identify the most suitable areas for implementing action C1, taking into account the characteristics of the pine forests (internal and external functionality and structure) and, above all, the area’s current and future climate. The objective is to make use of (and highlight the importance of) the best scientific and technical knowledge available in order to ensure the correct implementation of action C1. Correct implementation of this action will make it possible to define methodologies to protect and improve the capacity of reforested pine woodland to provide ecosystem services. The primary expected outcome is the creation of a document containing guidelines for the implementation of action C1, primarily including the following considerations: (1) The most suitable sites, i.e. those where the actions are expected to be most effective. (2) The most suitable techniques, in light of the characteristics of the woodland areas that are the focus of the action: design of the action (spatial pattern), intensity of thinning (% of the no. of trees/ha that need to be extracted), weight of thinning (% of the basal area to be extracted) and most suitable means (type of machinery, loading, etc.).
- The total estimated cost for this action is €58,076.
- The partners involved in this action are the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning and the Andalusian Environment and Water Agency.
A2 Gathering information in order to design actions that will enhance the capacity of Doñana’s Mediterranean flora to adapt to climate change.
This action lays the foundations to ensure that action C2 (adaptive management of Doñana’s Mediterranean flora) is implemented in accordance with sufficient scientific and technical criteria. The adaptive management of Doñana’s Mediterranean flora is one of the key elements of this project. At present, low scrubland occupies areas that were previously home to larger shrub species and trees such as cork oak, ash and olive. Excessive pressure from existing herbivore populations, combined with the lack of nearby parent plants in many areas, means that natural regeneration is almost non-existent. In turn, this results in a deterioration of the ecosystem’s ecological functionality and its capacity to provide environmental services. Additionally, the resultant ecosystem has a reduced capacity for response to climate change. This action contributes criteria that are based on knowledge and prior experience, with a view to ensuring the correct implementation of the measures proposed in action C2 to regenerate Mediterranean woodland.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €16,933.
The partners involved in this action are the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning.
A3 Pilot study to characterise the dynamics of the ecohydrological complex of Ziziphus lotus habitats in Cabo de Gata.
The main aim of this action is to gather and generate relevant technical and scientific information in order to implement action C3 (increasing the resilience and protection of services in Ziziphus lotus habitats) in the most suitable sites, in line with the most effective approach to ensure the maintenance of the services provided by Ziziphus lotus habitats.
The methodology used to implement this action is based on the following elements:
– Preliminary study of the aquifer structure in Torregarcía/Amoladeras/Rambla Morales. This will be done using common techniques in groundwater hydrology, such as determining the piezometric level and salinity level.
– Preliminary study of the effects of defoliators on Ziziphus lotus and their relationship to the plants’ water availability. A specific methodology will be designed in order to assess this variable. Additionally, this method will be complemented with the addition of other, similar methods used in the project’s other areas of focus (the Sierra Nevada and Doñana).
– Characterisation of the age structure and spatial pattern of the population of Ziziphus lotus.
– Evaluation of different densities and spatial patterns with regard to the elimination of Agave spp.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €25,804.
- The partners involved in this action are the University of Almería and the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning.
A4 Pilot study to quantify the role of traditional farming methods as a means of maintaining the provision of ecosystem services in Cabo de Gata.
The geographical scope of this action is limited to hillsides that were farmed using subsistence methods during the period 1950-1975. All of these action areas are located in the vicinity of Escullos in the Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park. The aim of this preparatory action is to select the most suitable sites for the implementation of action C4 (soil conservation and agricultural management as tools to protect ecosystem services in semi-arid environments). To achieve this, the most up-to-date knowledge will be employed in order to ensure the achievement of the aims of action C4, while also defining the most suitable farming methods for maintaining the ecosystem services associated with the hydrological and biogeochemical cycles (carbon and nitrogen in particular).
The analyses of the current situation regarding soil conservation and condition (and traditional soil retention structures) that are performed as part of this preparatory action are designed to provide sufficiently detailed maps (i.e. the level of the microbasin, with a digital elevation model offering metric or sub-metric levels of precision) to enable adequate placement of the areas where action C4 will be implemented, and to propose a management model that maximises productivity while maintaining the unique characteristics of the native plant community. To achieve this, data will be gathered on soil, geology, vegetation, flora, climate, and other parameters. Climate models specific to the region will also be applied, which will make it possible to simulate future conditions in the action areas. Additionally, the action aims to characterise the electromagnetic spectrum reflected in the areas being studied, differentiating between (at a minimum) bare labile soil, rocky soil, photosynthetically active vegetation and non-photosynthetically active vegetation, in order to optimise the monitoring of action C4 using remote sensors.
Climate change has a notable effect on soil dynamics and (above all) has the capacity to intensify processes that cause soil deterioration, such as physical erosion and loss of nutrients. However, traditional agricultural activities play a key role in the conservation of soil in Mediterranean environments. In many areas, the lack of water has resulted in the development of techniques to retain it and prevent soil from being lost. The Cabo de Gata Protected Natural Area offers examples of these techniques in the form of terraces or similar landforms that were designed decades ago and are now falling into disuse. These terraced cultivation systems underpin both the agricultural activities and the biodiversity of the area: consequently, their deterioration threatens not only the services they generate, but also the aforementioned biodiversity. This action (along with action C4) will improve the capacity of these terraces to retain water and nutrients.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €21,792.
- The partners involved in this action are the University of Almería and the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning.
A5 Identifying the ecological and hydrological factors that are key to the selection of optimum areas for restoring high mountain scrubland in the Sierra Nevada.
This preparatory action precedes main action C5 (restoration of scrubland in high mountain areas) and provides criteria and information to complement that which already exists. More specifically, optimum areas for the implementation of action C5 will be selected on the basis of the most precise climate change forecasts available for the Sierra Nevada region, with the aim of focusing efforts on those areas where the actions are estimated to be most effective. To achieve this, the areas selected will be those where the ecosystem of Mediterranean high mountain scrubland (which is the focus of the action) will find it difficult to regenerate and survive in the future, according to current climate forecasts; as well as those areas where the characteristics are optimal, in order to reinforce continuity and strengthen connections between nearby communities, thereby ensuring sufficient regenerative capacity and thus aiding the expansion of these communities. Additionally, a system for selecting the action areas will be developed based on a number of different criteria, with the ultimate purpose of identifying the two most suitable locations for the implementation of action C5.
– Gathering all of the available information on the distribution of juniper and savin scrubland, the structure of the habitat and indicators of functionality. Information will also be gathered on variables related to climate, condition, distribution of snow cover within the ecosystem, etc. All of the information generated will be entered into a computerised database.
– Hydrological modelling of the area of study using the WiMMed model and the meteorological data obtained during the previous step. WiMMed is a hydrological model that has already been calibrated for the Sierra Nevada and offers a physical representation of the hydrological processes, particularly snowfall and snowmelt in Mediterranean environments. At present, the model has been set up to provide results in the Sierra Nevada within a grid of 30×30 metres. This grid can be modified from time to time. The model will be validated on the basis of current measurements for soil moisture and quantity/duration of snowfall that have been obtained via satellite, with surface photographs and field campaigns focusing on locations within the areas of existing scrubland. Both current and future climate conditions will be taken into account when executing the modelling process. This will make it possible to analyse the differences between current moisture levels and those forecast by the climate scenarios.
– Simulation of the potential distribution of juniper scrubland under current hydrological conditions (using WiMMed with the current climate) and those forecast under two specific scenarios (using WiMMed in conjunction with the scenarios of IPCC 5).
– Performance of a multi-criteria evaluation analysis in order to identify areas where juniper and savin scrubland could potentially survive in the future, taking into account the region-specific climate scenarios and other biophysical variables. The moisture maps described above will also be used. The outcome of this process will be a list of highly suitable areas where juniper and savin scrubland could survive, both now and in the near future.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €45,492.
- The partners involved in this action are the University of Granada, the Andalusian Environment and Water Agency and the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning.
A6 Monitoring and evaluation of the incidence of forest pests in oak and pine forests in the Sierra Nevada as a result of climate change.
The activities that form part of this action will take place in representative areas of Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) and holm oak (Quercus ilex) forest in the Sierra Nevada. The action will take as its starting point the existing knowledge of the phenology of Pyrenean oak in the Sierra Nevada. It will also incorporate monitoring processes that take into consideration the phenology of holm oak and pine, the phenology and abundance of species that form part of the defoliator complex affecting the Quercus genus (justified in the light of new species and behaviours), the phenology and abundance of pine-boring species, and the interactions between all of these factors. To achieve this, periodic visits will be made to particular transects that will initially be selected on the basis of how representative they are of the ecological conditions found in the three types of forest. Search and capture will be performed, using pheromone traps where possible and other trapping methods for species where no synthetic pheromones are available. The visits will coincide with critical periods in the trees’ cycles (budding, flowering and fruiting), with a frequency of approximately two visits per month for each transect. The visits will be used to identify the different types of damage done to the trees (buds, leaves, flowers, fruit and wood) and to identify the species responsible, whether on site or in the laboratory.
In recent years an increase has been detected in the incidence of the defoliator complex affecting Quercus ilex (subsp. ballota) and Quercus pyrenaica as a consequence of climate change potentially brought on by the effects of drought on the trees and changes in the phenology and abundance of pest species. As a result, there is evidence of the emergence of new pest species in the area, variations in the behavioural cycles of the known pest species, and variations in the group effect (stepped behaviour). This new behaviour on the part of pests, combined with the effects of climate change on forested areas (droughts, phenological variations, etc.), makes the forests more vulnerable and increases the impact these processes currently have on such areas. Moreover, the level of vulnerability and impact may increase in the future if current climate forecasts prove to be accurate. For this reason, it is necessary to improve our current knowledge of the effects of climate change on the tendency of the Quercus genus to suffer from pests, the phenological changes that take place in the forests, the impact of these changes on the pest-host relationship and its consequences for sexual reproduction in oak species. (Very low sexual reproduction rates have been observed for these species: this may be related to the aforementioned factors and undoubtedly affects the capacity of these species to adapt to future changes.)
In summary, this action aims to improve our knowledge of the effects of climate change on the main pests that affect oak and pine species in the Sierra Nevada, and to analyse the characteristics of the forest areas that are most vulnerable to attacks from these pests. This will make it possible to establish a series of recommendations for management actions that will minimise the risk of mass attacks. These recommendations will be designed to favour certain types of forest area that have been shown to be more resistant to pest attacks, and will be incorporated into the manuals along with management recommendations for action E1. This will help to improve the quality of the guidelines for increasing the capacity of forests to adapt to global change, as their vulnerability to the impact of forest pests will also be taken into account.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €42,347.
- The partners involved in this action are the Andalusian Environment and Water Agency and the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning.
A7 Preparatory action for engagement with livestock farmers, irrigation associations and local populations to jointly define the location and characteristics of the main actions (C).
The nature of the protected spaces (particularly within the context of an “anthropised mosaic” like the Mediterranean region) and the new conservation paradigms underline the importance of these spaces as a key part of their surrounding environment, as opposed to isolated areas of land. They are places where all of the interested parties have the right to express their opinions regarding the management decisions that are taken, and where the communities that live near these spaces (to a greater or lesser extent) are aware and informed of these activities and recognise the value and importance of preserving their environment. This action aims to incorporate the criteria and opinions of local interest groups into the process of defining part of the main project actions (locations, procedures, etc.). Moreover, in the case of the Sierra Nevada the ultimate aim is to define, on the one hand, the specific location and techniques for the tasks designed to improve the functioning of the irrigation canals that serve the high mountain scrubland and irrigation associations; and on the other hand, to define the specific location and characteristics of the temporary fences to protect the plantations provided for in action C5, in collaboration with the livestock farmers. Consequently, all of the actions that are taken must first be agreed with the irrigation associations, in order to prevent any actions that might harm their interests. As a result, this action will help to improve perception and the resolution of any local conflicts that may affect the management of shared natural resources, thereby enabling correct implementation of the adaptation activities provided for as part of the project.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €22,072.
- The only partner involved in this action is the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.
A8 Preparatory action to draft three plans for the allocation of work activities.
The aim of this action is to draft the work plans by means of which actions C1, C2 and C6 will be implemented. Each plan will incorporate a report, a list of technical specifications, a duly justified budget based on the current and officially published national rates, and detailed location plans for the work activities in question. Specifically, the list of technical specifications will explicitly set out the implementation criteria agreed beforehand by the parties responsible for the actions in question, in order to make sure said actions are carried out as specified in the corresponding sections. They will also include the outcomes of those preparatory actions that may be of relevance to the implementation of the actions in question (actions A1 and A2). The list of technical specifications will be drawn up in accordance with the usual methodology for the drafting of plans, paying particular attention to the use of management techniques that will minimise any unwanted impacts on the ecosystem and optimise the achievement of the objectives for the work activities in question.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €9,450.
- The partners involved in this action are the Andalusian Environment and Water Agency and the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning.
A9 Ex-ante evaluation of the condition of the ecosystem services affected by the project (landscape scale).
The aim of this action is to quantify the condition of the ecosystem services that are the target of this project prior to implementing the main project actions; i.e. to define a starting point or baseline for evaluating the impact of the proposed project actions on the ecosystem services selected. It is an aim that will be difficult to achieve, owing to the nature of the ecosystem services in question and the diversity of the ecosystems that fall within the scope of the project. To minimise the uncertainty that is inherent to this process of quantification, we propose an evaluation of the services using two different spatial scales. This action will approach the quantification of the ecosystem services at the landscape scale, using information from remote sensors (MODIS and Landsat).
The specific aims of this action are as follows:
(1) To develop and prepare methodologies that make it possible to evaluate the condition of the ecosystem services affected by the project actions before said actions are implemented. The methodologies generated can also be used to evaluate the effect of these actions at the landscape scale (action D7). Monitoring will be carried out at the landscape scale, with sufficient temporal resolution to detect any changes in the intra- and inter-annual dynamics.
(2) To generate spatially explicit information pertaining to biophysical variables that describe the functioning of the ecosystem, in order to quantify the ecosystem services prior to implementing the main project actions.
(3) To equip the managers of the three parks involved in the project with a protocol/system for monitoring the ecological functions linked to the production of ecosystem services.
The ecosystem services that are potentially quantifiable at the landscape scale are those related to the functioning and general structure of the ecosystem, as well as those related to the trends that have been observed in these services in recent years. Remote sensors have demonstrated their ability to quantify structural and functional changes within ecosystems, which are considered substitutes for ecosystem services (chiefly with regard to provision, regulation and support).
At present, there are many satellites capable of providing information that can be used to evaluate the functioning of the ecosystems. However, the different outputs they produce tend to offer a high spatial resolution, or a high temporal resolution. In order to achieve the aims of this action, it is necessary to obtain images that possess both of these characteristics. To do this, we will use the spatial and temporal adaptive reflectance fusion model (STARFM) to generate an algorithm that will fuse the data obtained from the Landsat satellite with those obtained from MODIS, thereby enabling the creation of synthetic images with Landsat spatial resolution (30 m) and MODIS temporal resolution (16 days). This will make it possible to characterise the dynamics of the ecosystem at a landscape-scale spatial resolution, which is the appropriate scale for the size of the areas targeted by the main actions. Once the synthesised image has been obtained, tests will be carried out using different algorithms that make it possible to convert the image’s radiometric values to biophysical variables linked to the basic functions of the ecosystem.
Once the fusion and conversion methodologies have been adjusted, the complete MODIS series (from 2000) will be downloaded and converted, thereby producing a temporal series of images, with time intervals of 15 days, containing spatially explicit information pertaining to the variables that are of interest. By this stage, detailed knowledge of the locations of the activities provided for in the main project actions will thus have been obtained. In turn, this will make it possible to carry out the experimental design for the image sampling and establish replicas and reference areas, etc. Once the sampling protocol has been defined, it will be applied to the temporal series of fused images, in order to generate information that can be used to evaluate the changes.
In order to validate the satellite information that is used, radiometric information will be obtained from small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with passive sensors to acquire radiometric information similar to that which is generated by the satellites. The aim is to obtain information that is similar, but has a higher spatial resolution (3 m) and less uncertainty with regard to location and radiometric data that may have been entered in error due to atmospheric conditions. Once the images have undergone radiometric and geometric correction, the aforementioned algorithms will be applied in order to calculate the biophysical variables specified. After applying the sampling design, we will obtain information for the same locations as that provided by the satellite (MODIS). This high-resolution image will be considered the “true” terrain and will allow us to establish the levels of error for the information obtained from the satellite images. These images will be obtained before the actions begin.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €35,240.
- The partners involved in this action are the University of Almería, the University of Granada, the Andalusian Environment and Water Agency and the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC).
A10 Ex-ante evaluation of the condition of the ecosystem services affected by the project (field scale).
Ex-ante evaluation of the condition of the ecosystem services affected by the project (field scale).
The aim of this action is to quantify the condition of the ecosystem services that are the target of this project prior to implementing the main project actions; i.e. to define a starting point or baseline for evaluating the impact of the proposed project actions on the ecosystem services selected. The specific aims of this action are as follows:
(1) To develop and prepare methodologies that make it possible to evaluate the condition of the ecosystem services affected by the project actions before said actions are implemented.
(2) To generate information pertaining to biophysical variables that describe the functioning of the ecosystem, in order to quantify the ecosystem services prior to implementing the main project actions.
The monitoring activities that have been carried out fall within the following methodological categories:
– Monitoring of the population of passerine birds.
– Dispersal of seeds by carnivorous mammals.
– Structure and composition of the population of micromammals.
– Monitoring of reptiles.
– Abundance of pollinators.
– Monitoring of diurnal butterflies.
– Monitoring of terrestrial arthropods in Ziziphus lotus habitats.
– Forest inventory and monitoring using hemispherical images.
– Collection of soil samples.
– Evolution of plant growth.
– Changes to phenology and reproductive capacity.
– Changes to diversity and regeneration.
- The total estimated cost for this action is €102,159.
- The partners involved in this action are the Andalusian Ministry of the Environment and Planning, the Andalusian Environment and Water Agency and the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC).